Europe- India Space Cooperation: A Comprehensive Study of 100-year Engagement and Beyond

Abstract

India and Europe's collaboration in the realm of Space is a multi-dimensional and multi-domain venture with evolutionary synergy.  This research delves into the commercial, socio-economic, security, and scientific aspects of the space collaborations between India and Europe. It examines technological ventures in launch vehicles, rocket engines, satellites, and the installed scientific instruments. It explores joint efforts in various orbital domains, including Near Earth, Lower Earth, Geostationary, Geosynchronous, and Polar Orbits, alongside Deep-space Exploration Probes and Planetary missions. It extends further to incorporate emerging fields like space resources, space weather, and space colonization. The study scrutinizes the policy environments and regulatory framework in both regions, assessing the historical trajectory of their space programs. It identifies potential avenues of cooperation aligning with the policy directives of individual European countries and India. Thereby, it provides insights into the future direction of Europe-India space cooperation in the evolving geopolitical context, emphasizing the mutual benefits and strategic importance of this partnership in the advancing global space landscape.

Introduction

Advancements in scientific research in Outer Space over the past few decades have allowed prudent and forward-looking countries to explore new horizons. It has opened doors for the development and deployment of various space-based applications. India and Europe are emerging as significant players in this domain, thinking of a way to observe the requirements of evolutionary life on earth from a different dimension and bringing transformative changes.

Indian Space program administered by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has made remarkable progress. It was founded in 1969 and launched its first satellite 'Aryabhata' in 1975. Over the years, it achieved notable milestones with payload delivery systems and rockets such as sounding rockets, launch vehicles, and heavy lift rockets. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicles (PSLV) and Global Satellite Launch Vehicles (GSLV) have a remarkable record of successful payload delivery in Space. Alongside, the mission spectrum has expanded to deep space exploration, celestial bodies, and planetary missions such as the Chandrayaan (Moon missions), the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), and the Aditya L-1 mission (Sun Mission).

Similarly, European Space endeavors have achieved substantial progress, coordinated by the European Space Agency (ESA), which was set up in 1975. While ESA is the Nodal Agency for Space Affairs in Europe, many individual countries have their own space agencies and space bodies. ESA's space ventures comprise a collaborative framework involving contributions from various European countries like France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, and Norway. Through joint and multilateral collaboration, ESA has led successful missions like the International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) mission Series, Rosetta (landing a probe on a comet), the Galileo satellite navigation system (GNSS), Moon Orbiter and Mars Explorer missions. Alongside this, ESA has made significant progress with Payload Delivery systems and Rocket Technology. Ariane family of rockets have been instrumental in launching satellites and conducting interplanetary missions.

India and Europe have maintained a synergetic and complementary relationship from the very early stages. Where ISRO's evolution is characterized by its civilian-centric innovative and cost-effective approaches for steady and incremental progress with prudent budget allocation, the European space program emphasized collaboration, cutting-edge technology, and comprehensive exploration missions. ISRO started with the satellite program and sounding rockets, and it first excelled at communication satellites and environmental satellites, then later moved to deep space and planetary ventures. Meanwhile, ESA started diversifying early on with Sun expeditions, Rockets, Lunar missions, planetary missions, and Space instrumentation. ISRO initially used European satellite such as APPLE beginning while developing its own indigenous satellites. Likewise, the Ariane Series of Rockets was initially used to deliver lighter and later heavier satellites while developing its own PSLV and GSLV Rockets. Similarly with the Satellite instruments, Ground Stations, Scientific Data and information it relied in international collaboration and joint development, until its own systems are matured. Soon, with the saturation point, the relationship reversed when ISRO started taking international contracts for satellites and other space assets delivered to space from the same European partners. Meanwhile, it continued using European observational equipment in its own satellite programs launched by PSLV and GSLV rockets.

ESA, on the other hand, adopted the 'excellence, transfer, and move forward with a further excellence' approach. It partnered with International players like NASA very early on, allocating a substantial budget for scientific and space research, alongside undertaking patent, registration, and license activity. Meanwhile, it involved private industry partners for production activity and incorporated academics to partner with ESA as well as industry partners for research and consultation. This created an Administrational-Industry-Academics complex with a substantial monetary contribution that could undertake big, long-term, and diversified projects for space endeavours. As the technology matured, ESA transferred the deployment and production activity to international partners like India, which were capable of undertaking it in an innovative and cost-effective manner. Meanwhile, it continued to provide high-end services to India, such as rocket launch and instrumentation and ground station support for positioning and navigation in advanced planetary and deep space missions. Both India and Europe have thus supported each other's growth in their Space Program in a complementary manner. 

Learning from each other and their individual experiences, Europe and India are reviewing their strategies and policy outlook, reprioritizing their Space objectives. Indian Space Policy 2023 identifies four pillars in its bid to diversify and expand the mandate of the Space Program. National Security, International Collaboration, and Space Diplomacy are the additional verticals alongside the core Socio-economic Development (ISRO, 2023). The policy paves the way for the commercialization and securitization of space programs. Along these lines, India is opening the space domain for the private sector, inviting industry players, and supporting the startup ecosystem for the rapid outlay of commercial activities in civilian and non-civilian domains. In addition, geopolitical alignment and balancing have added a new dimension to the future relationship with international players and partners like Europe.

European countries are also reprioritizing their space objectives along similar considerations, emphasizing commercial aspects centered on socio-economic development. At the individual country level, each country within Europe specializes in different space profiles, like France in heavy rockets and Italy in medium rockets. Therefore, they have differing and contrasting priorities in focus for the future. This aspect not only allows room for intra-Europe collaboration but also leaves enough room for bilateral collaboration with non-European partners like India in their commercialization bid. At the same time, security concerns amidst the eventual rise of conventional and non-conventional threats and ensuing instability in the world order have also caught the attention of the European nations. Europe is contemplating space-based security architecture and seeking reliable partners with peaceful tendencies. This scenario provides for a comprehensive outlook where broader long-term interests of the two regions converge in the socio-political and security domains alongside commercial gains and scientific advancements.

Further, these developments are opening fresh avenues for Businesses, Industries, and Academics to explore that were otherwise restricted or unattainable. Eventually, government institutions other than just space agencies or departments like the military, ministries, and provincial and local government bodies will also become significant stakeholders for businesses and academics to partner with in their space endeavours. Thus, India and Europe are well positioned for a phase where Government to Government collaboration (G2G) or Agency to Agency Collaboration (A2A) is inadvertently going to delve into Business to Government (B2G), Business to Business (B2B), and Business to Customer (B2C) likewise Academics to Academics, (Ac2Ac) and Academics to Business (Ac2B). This cross-regional complex created between Europe and India can catapult their Space endevours to the next stage of the Space Age, thus realizing the possibilities of new space ventures like space mining, interplanetary settlement, and space weather prediction alongside planetary defense.

Missions Overview

Indian Space Program began very strategically, with a clear aim of harvesting the most required technologies first, as budget constraints were very tight while maintaining the purely Civilian Nature of the Space program (Rajagopalan, 2019). Therefore, ISRO focused on three key priorities: Sounding Rockets (for orbital reconnaissance), Satellites, and Spaceports. It also required Ground Station support and scientific expertise to facilitate and operate the space operations. Considering this, the core team of the Indian scientists leading the ISRO started approaching French, German, and Italian space agencies. Germany had been experimenting with space rockets since the early 1930s, and German scientists maintained close interactions with Indian scientists (Grossman, 2019; Ramnath, 2022). From the 1960s onwards, the French Space Agency: Central National d'Etudes Spacial (CNES) and Indian scientists entered into close cooperation and started working on sounding rockets in 1963 (Reddy, 2019). India obtained Solid Propulsion Technology and licenses to build French Centaure Sounding Rockets through an agreement between CNES and the Indian Government's Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) India obtained Solid Propulsion Technology and licenses to build French Centaure Sounding Rockets through an agreement between CNES and the Indian Government's Department of Atomic Energy (Reddy, 2019). Later, India developed a larger Rohini series of sounding rockets, RH-200, RH-300, and RH-560 (Numbers denoting the diameter) (Udayavani, 2021). In the next phase, a team of Indian scientists was set up in 1974 to work alongside French engineers on the Viking Liquid Engine for the Ariane rocket (Chaudhury, 2016). This engagement provided India with the expertise in Liquid Propulsion Technology and Rockets for initial satellite deliveries to space.

Advancing onto the next priority with the Satellites, and Spaceports, ESA and ISRO had their first venture in 1981, launching the APPLE (Ariane Passenger Pay-Load Experiment) Satellite for India. It used the Ariane-1 rocket, launched from the Kourou launch site in French Guiana (Overseas Department of France in South America) into the geostationary orbit (ISRO, 2022). Thereafter, India launched 15 INSAT (Indian Satellites) series satellites using different variants of the Ariane series of Rockets over the next three decades. India also remained clear with the incremental progress objective in their satellite program. Beginning with the Communication Satellites in the INSAT series, 1A, and 1B were launched using Ariane-1 rockets, and later, 1C and 1D were launched with Ariane-3 rockets from French Guiana during the 1980s (Arianespace 2024). These were Multipurpose Geostationary Satellite Systems designed for telecommunication, broadcasting, and meteorology, alongside search and rescue operations (Javaid, 2022). Subsequently, INSAT-2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, and 2E fitted with enhanced transponders, and 3C providing VSAT (Very-Small-Aperture-Terminal) services, were launched with Ariane-4 rockets, in 1990's and early 2000's (Javaid, 2022; Arianespace 2024). Making further progress with the Satellite programs, INSAT-3B (providing Mobile Satellite Services), 3A, and 3E (providing Broadband services), and INSAT-4A, 4B, and 4CR providing high power Ku band for DTH (Direct-To-Home) television services, were launched using Ariane-5 rockets in the early 2000s (Javaid, 2022; Arianespace 2024).

Meanwhile, learning from the experiences with the Sounding rockets and the Ariane launch vehicles, India started developing its own rocket systems for orbital payload delivery. In 1993, ISRO developed the first Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota and, over the years, continued to mature the rocket technology (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024). Simultaneously, India also started developing remote sensing satellites for various Earth Observation applications. It launched multiple satellites in the IRS (Indian Remote sensing) series involving CARTOSAT, for Cartographic applications; RISAT, for all-weather surveillance; Resourcesat, for land-resource monitoring and management; and Oceansat, for Oceanographic studies and coastal zone management (ISRO, 2024a). By the early-2000’s, PSLV started delivering foreign payloads, including communication, remote sensing, and various experimental satellites to Geostationary, Geosynchronous, and lately to the Low Earth Orbits. In 2007, Italy launched the AGILE (Astro revelatory Gamma an Immagini Leggero) mission dedicated to Gamma-ray observation in the Universe, using PSLV Rocket from Sriharikota (CERN Courier, 2024). Ever since, PSLV has delivered the SPOT-6 and SPOT-7 satellites for France alongside hundreds of satellites for Switzerland, Germany, the UK, Netherlands, Spain, Lithuania, Finland, and Luxembourg (Apollo Mapping, 2024; Economic Times, 2022).

Apparently prioritizing Rockets and Satellites in the initial three and half decades, ISRO set forth the next set of priorities with the advancement of Earth Observation and Environmental satellites, alongside missions to celestial bodies like the Moon, while Mars and the Sun follow the next phase. Multiple satellites in CARTOSAT series like Cartosat-1, 2 and 3, including their different sub-variants were launched (Geographic Book, 2024). Likewise, Resourcesat-1, 2, and 2A for natural resource monitoring, while RISAT-1 and 2, including the variants 1A,1B, 2B, 2BR1, and 2BR2 for reconnaissance and surveillance applications involving national security, disaster management, agriculture, and forestry, were launched using PSLV rockets (ISRO, 2024b; Gunter's Space Page, 2024, 2024a). Similarly, Oceansat-1, 2, and 3 for oceanographic studies were launched involving fisheries, climate patterns, and weather forecasting alongside coastal zones, marine resources, and ecosystem management (MOSDAC, 2024).

The developments in the Earth Observation missions are complemented with similar missions by the European Space Agency. For instance Sentinel series program: 1A and 1B, launched using the Russian Soyuz Rockets, in 2014 and 2016, alongside 2A and 2B in 2015 and 2017 using the Italian Vega Rockets (ESA, 2024), perform similar applications as the RISAT and Resourcesat series, involving flood monitoring, earthquake analysis, landslide and volcano monitoring. Similarly, Envisat launched in 2002 using Ariane-5 rocket, and Sentinel-3A and 3B in 2016 and 2018 using Vega Rockets (ESA, 2024a; ESA, 2024), complements Resourcesat and Oceansat series, performing the Land, Ocean and Atmosphere monitoring applications. Meanwhile, Pléiades Satellite System operated by Airbus Defence and Space provide high-resolution optical imagery similar to the Cartosat series (Airbus, 2024).

A prominent success in the India-Europe collaboration is with the Megha-Tropiques joint weather satellite mission to understand water vapour, cloud precipitation, and radiation processes. It was launched in 2011, using the PSLV rocket from Sriharikota. It used various instruments provided by the French Space Agency (CNES) and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) while tested and integrated by ISRO (EO Portal, 2024). Likewise, in 2013, another joint satellite mission, SARAL (Satellite with Argos and ALtika altimeter), was launched with the PSLV rockets, incorporating instruments from CNES (Lele, 2024). Variants of some of these instruments were used earlier in ESA's Earth observation and weather monitoring missions, like the ERS-1 and ERS-2 in the 1990s and the Envisat mission in 2002 (ESA, 2024b; ESA, 2024a). These developments signify a new phase where India reached a saturation point, excelling at cost-effective delivery in medium payloads. Simultaneously, Europe attained excellence in sophisticated satellite instrumentation by this time and started providing instruments to partner countries.

Meanwhile, the INSAT (Indian satellite) program evolved into the GSAT (Global Satellite) program, providing global coverage. These developments also initiated the usage of Heavy Rockets for long-distance missions, along with multi-orbital and multiple satellite delivery. Ariane-5 rockets were the primary choice for the GSAT Satellites. A total of 11 GSAT satellites were launched using Ariane-5 rockets. GSAT satellites also expanded to incorporate multiple functionalities and specific mission objectives while replacing many of the older INSAT satellites with increased coverage. GSAT-8, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 30, and 31 enhanced communication and broadcasting capabilities while replacing INSAT satellites like 3B, 4A, and 4CR (ISRO, 2024d). GSAT-16 enhanced telecommunication services and transmitter capacity, replacing INSAT-3E, while GSAT-11 is India's heaviest satellite providing broadcasting services (PIB, 2024; ISRO, 2024e). Also, GSAT-7, made for the Indian Navy, involved naval applications operating in the Indian Ocean, and GSAT-24 provides DTH services for a private company, Tata Play (formerly Tata Sky), which also provides broadcasting services to European Nations (Airforce Technology, 2024; Tata Play, 2024).

Planetary and Deep Space Missions

Reaching new horizons by elevating the Space Program's outreach to distant celestial objects like the Moon, Mars, and the Sun was the next on India's priority list. ISRO has had this ambition since the 1980s but lacked the technological expertise in the critical technologies required for conducting such missions, typically in three areas: Heavy-lift Rockets, Cryogenic engines, and overseas Ground Station Support (since such missions required all-around connectivity from the Earth). Limitations on the in-house infrastructural capacity to develop such systems amidst budget constraints hampered the capability to undertake deep space exploration missions at that stage. Meanwhile, India has also tried alternative approaches for procuring these technologies and services through international collaboration, but these attempts could not deliver results, either due to an unfavorable geopolitical landscape or over-budgeting issues. For instance, the cryogenic engine (meant to work on very low temperatures) was offered to India by France during 1970s for $1.5 million (₹1 crore) per engine and later in 1990s at the inflated cost of $5 million (₹33.5 Crore) per engine (Reddy, 2019). ISRO declined the offers due to budget constraints. Likewise, Germany supported India with the early rocket technology for satellite launch vehicles in the 1970s and 80s, providing wind tunnel testing for SLV-3, simulating pressures at various altitudes (Reddy, 2019). Subsequently, this led to the development of PSLV rockets. Meanwhile, it still took substantial time to develop a Heavy Rocket. India had to wait until the 2010 when India finally developed its own heavy rocket, the Global Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), along with the indigenous cryogenic engine (Economic Times, 2014).

The conditions were more favorable for Europe during this period, facilitated by multilateralism, Budget allocation, and long-term planning structure seeking International partners. In 1984, ESA prepared a framework under the "Horizon 2000" plan for the upcoming mission series, dividing them into 3 categories: Cornerstones (costing two annual budgets over a long Implementation), Medium-missions (M-class: costing one annual budget), and Small sized Mission (S-class: costing half a budget), (Bonnet, 1995). Later, the Large missions (L-Class) category was introduced under the ‘Cosmic Vision campaign’ in 2005, while ESA's Science Programme Committee (SPC) Workshop in 2018 introduced the Fast missions (F-class) category (ESA, 2024c; Hasinger, 2018). Within these mission series, ESA successfully has undertaken multiple deep space missions pertaining to space observations, space weather, space objects like Asteroids, and, more importantly, celestial bodies like the Sun, Earth's Moon, and other Planets in the Solar system.

In the Cornerstone series, a total of 4 missions were launched, including Cornerstone 1 – SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory) in 1995 for Space weather forecasting and studying the planet's magnetosphere; Cornerstone 2 – XMM-Newton (X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission) in 1999, for studying the full range of cosmic X-ray sources; Cornerstone 3 – Rosetta, a Comet orbiter mission to study their evolution in 2004: and Cornerstone 4 – Herschel, an Infrared space observatory mission for general astronomy in 2009 (Whitcomb, 2000). The Medium Series comprised 6 missions, out of which 3 fall under the 'Horizon 2000 plan' while the remaining 3 follow the 'Horizon 2000 plus plan'. The missions in the first plan comprise: Huygens (1997), Lander mission to Jupiter's moon Titan; INTEGRAL (2002), Gamma-ray space observatory; and Planck (2009), Cosmology mission to map cosmic microwave background and its anisotropies (Redshift, 2024). Subsequently, missions in the second plan include Gaia (2013), an Astrometry mission in the Milky Way Galaxy; LISA Pathfinder (2015), a Gravitational wave observatory mission; and BepiColombo (2020, 2021), a reconnaissance mission to Mercury using two unique spacecraft operating respectively (Whitcomb, 2000). While ESA's Horizon 2000 and Horizon 2000 plus focused on deep space exploration missions in various dimensions, it also mandated dedicated planetary exploration programs to Mars, Venus, Mercury, Saturn and Jupiter, alongside the Moon and Sun Programs.

The Moon program is a particular case where there appears to be a synergy between ESA and ISRO for the first time in a major mission, with SMART-1 and Chandrayaan-1 missions. While the two missions were distinct programs dedicated to placing a moon orbiter and retrieving imagery data, both complemented each other with mission study, data sharing, and, more specifically, the instrumentation. ESA's SMART-1 (Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology) was launched in 2003 from French Guiana, using Ariane-5 rockets (ESA, 2024d). The mission objectives included the study of moon topography, surface texture, light spectrum, mineral exploration, and Ice formation in the dark regions, using different bands in the Infrared and X-ray light spectrum (ESA, 2024d1). ISRO went ahead with its first moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, in 2008, using PSLV rockets with the mandate for further exploring the Moon Surface (MPS, 2024). The mission successfully created 3D, high-resolution mapping in visible, near-infrared, and X-ray frequencies while examining dark regions around the poles (MPS, 2024). Chandrayaan-1 also carried many instruments provided by European partners, like the Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) provided by UK, and Near-Infrared Spectrometer (SIR-2), (Reddy, 2019). These instruments replicated the advanced version of the Mineral exploration instruments used in the SMART-1 mission. Chandrayan-1 also carried a radiation dose monitor (RADOM) provided b20y the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, developed in collaboration with ISRO, to measure radiation levels in the lunar environment (ISSDC, 2024). Another major achievement of the Chandrayaan-1 mission was the use of a Medium rocket (PSLV) instead of a Heavy Rocket (Arinae-5), for lighter payload delivery in the lunar orbit using a shorter path. This allowed for further scientific advancements in space navigation and undertaking heavy-load missions in the future.

The development of the GSLV rocket allowed ISRO to take moon missions to the next stage by launching Chanrdayaan-2 using these rockets in 2019 (EO Portal, 2024a). The mission involved three indigenous components, including an orbiter, lander (Vikram lander), and moon rover (Pragyan Rover), to further investigate the findings of Chandrayaan-1, more significantly in the lunar south pole (EO Portal, 2024a). The mission brought partial success as the lander crashed during descent while attempting a soft landing due to communication disturbance. Nonetheless, it provided useful information for further research and study, benefitting both ESA and ISRO and setting the stage for a third mission, where the two organizations once again joined hands after a decade-long delay. Chandrayaan-3 was launched in 2023, fulfilling the remaining objectives of Chandrayaan-2 with the successful soft landing on the moon's South Pole using a GSLV (LVM-3) rocket (ESA, 2024e). NASA and ESA supported ISRO by providing Ground Station Support for the mission. This employed NASA's Deep Space Network (DNS), which has a global network of antennas in California (USA), Madrid (Spain), and Canberra (Australia), along with ESA's Estrack Network of Ground Stations incorporating Redu Station (Belgium), Kourou Station (French Guiana), Kiruna Station (Sweden), New Norcia Station (Australia), and Malargüe Station (Argentina) (The Hindu, 2023; ESA, 2024e). The lander made a successful soft landing, this time on the South Pole, and released the Pragyan rover on the moon's surface for exploration activity.

The Mars programs of ISRO and ESA complement each other in the same manner, much like their lunar missions. ESA launched its first Planetary Mission Mars Express in 2003, using a Russian Soyuz-Fregat rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan (ESA, 2024f). The mission included an orbiter and a lander (Beagle-2) to conduct a mineralogical survey and Mars surface mapping (ESA, 2024f). To perform these operations, it was equipped with high-resolution sophisticated cameras, Spectrometers, and various other instruments operating in different frequency bands in infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light ranges. For instance, a High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) was used for dynamic Mars surface mapping while Visual Monitoring Cameras were used to monitor the separation of the Beagle 2 lander and probe Mars's ionosphere, surface, and interior (ESA, 2024f). Meanwhile, the other instruments provided for the experiments, like Methane detection, the temperature profile of Mars' CO2 atmosphere, plasma and neutral particle environment, as well as detected subsurface water ice and analyzed atmospheric composition and dynamics (ESA, 2024f).

The data retrieved from the Mars Express benefitted the global scientific community, including ISRO. In 2013, India made another leap in space with its indigenous Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) launching Mangalyaan, using PSLV Rockest from SDSC Sriharokota, India (ISRO, 2024f). The mission objectives supplemented the ESA's findings and data with the additional equipment it carried, such as a Colour camera, Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (TIS), methane sensors, and other instruments to detect water abundance and atmospheric composition (ISRO, 2024f). The success of Mangalyaan is further complemented by ESA and Roscosmos's joint mission, ExoMars, in 2016, carrying a Trace Gas Orbiter and a lander: Schiaparelli (Space, 2024). This mission aimed to detect chemical and isotope composition in the atmosphere while also carrying a high-resolution Colour Camera for geological studies and a Neutron Detector to map hydrogen levels for locating water-ice deposits (Space, 2024). The mission brought partial success with successfully entering the rover into orbit while the Schiaparelli lander crashed during descent due to a software error (Space, 2024). Looking at the big picture, it was a significant achievement for a joint venture between European and Russian space agencies. Meanwhile, it also sets a precedent for closer cooperation between Europe and India for future endeavours, complementing each other's Mars endeavors through data and information sharing. 

Considering the inter-agency cooperation, the collaboration between the ESA and NASA over the solar missions was crucial for Europe's early domination in solar sciences. NASA and DLR (German Space Agency) first collaborated on the Helios A (1974) and Helios B (1976) missions (DLR, 2024). The missions mandated solar wind observations, along with the study of magnetic and electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic dust between Earth and the Sun. Thereafter, ESA partnered with NASA for the International Earth Sun Explorer (ISEE-2) mission, which was built and managed by ESA (EO Portal, 2024c). This was a more dedicated mission to study solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere interactions and understand plasma behavior, their properties, and boundaries in various regions of space (EO Portal, 2024c). Later, in the 1990s, ESA and NASA partnered together for the Ulysses mission, which was designed to study the Polar Regions of the Sun, and the interstellar space above and below the Sun's poles (ESA, 2024g). The Ulysses was launched in 1990 using the Discovery Space Shuttle, launched from Kennedy Space Center, USA, and introduced in the lower earth orbit; later, with Jupiter's gravitational assistance, it entered Helio-centric orbit (ESA, 2024g). In this placement, Ulysses had an orbit period of 6 years. Therefore, the mission was completed in three phases. The first phase carried out South Pole (1994) and North Pole (1995) observations of the Sun, studying solar wind, magnetic fields, cosmic rays, and energetic particles. The second phase investigated the solar wind and magnetic fields during the solar maximum at the South Pole (2000) and North Pole (2001). Finally, the third phase examined the Sun's South Pole (2007) and North Pole (2008) during the declining phase of the solar cycle (ESA, 2024g).

The information and knowledge obtained from these decade-long missions have immensely benefitted the global scientific community while laying the ground for the next stage of solar missions, including ESA's Solar Orbiter mission in collaboration with NASA and ISRO's Aditya L1 mission. The Solar Orbiter mission launched in 2020 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, USA, using an Atlas 5 rocket, intends to study the Sun from closer, placed at 0.28 AU (astronomical units) from the Sun, inside Mercury's Orbit(A&A, 2021). The mission objectives include solar wind acceleration and travel through the solar system, study of the inner heliosphere and solar atmosphere (generation and variability of the solar magnetic field), and observations of solar poles to understand the solar dynamo and the 11-year solar cycle (A&A, 2021). Conversely, ISRO's Aditya L1 mission launched in 2023 using a PSLV rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Station in Sriharikota, India, intends to Study the Sun from a unique Vantage point L1 (Lagrangian Point-1) of the Sun-Earth system (Sharma, 2023). Placed at approximately 1.5 million kilometers from Earth, this position allows continuous monitoring of the Sun without Earth's interference. Aditya L1's mission objectives include studying the solar corona and its emissions (in visible and near-UV wavelengths), variation in solar wind properties with location, and capturing images of the Sun's chromosphere and transition region in near-ultraviolet and soft X-ray wavelengths (Sharma, 2023). Naturally, ESA's solar orbiter mission and ISRO's Aditya L1 mission complement each other by gathering and sharing multidimensional data. Further, Aditya L1 is another major milestone for increasing multilateralism in Space ventures, with ESA and NASA providing ground station support from their global Estarck and Deep Space Networks, similar to Chandrayaan-3 (ESA, 2024h).

Satellite Navigation Programs

While the Deep Space and Planetary missions focus on outer space application and their impact on Earth, another major priority for ESA and ISRO is concerning Earth-based applications of their space program. This includes developing their own Satellite Navigation Systems and supporting multi-sectoral applications. ISRO's NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) and ESA's Galileo are the major programs that employ constellation satellites for navigational applications (ISRO, 2024g; ESA, 2024i). NAVIC is the indigenous and localized satellite navigation system operating in the Indian Ocean Region and extending services to the peripheral regions of West Asia, Eastern Mediterranean, South-East Asia, and the Western Pacific (Space Watch, 2019). It employs a constellation of seven satellites under the IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) mission series, launched using the PSLV rockets between 2013 and 2018 (EO Portal, 2024d). Four satellites, IRNSS- 1A, 1B, 1D, and 1E, are placed in the Geosynchronous orbit, and three satellites, IRNSS- 1C, 1F and 1G, are placed in the Geostationary orbit, while 1A was later replaced by 1I, due to atomic clock related issues (EO Portal, 2024d). The mission involves three key objectives: to provide accurate position (to users in India and surrounding regions), Standard Positioning Service (to all users with 3-meter accuracy), and Restricted Services (encrypted services to authorized users like military and defence), (Bharat Shakti, 2023; ISRO, 2024g). These applications extend to terrestrial navigation (for drivers and pedestrians), aerial and marine navigation (for aircraft and ships), vehicle tracking and fleet management (for transport companies), disaster management, precise timing (synchronization for telecom and financial transactions), and geodetic and land surveying (for accurate land measurements).  

In contrast, ESA's Galileo is a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) that provides global coverage facilitated by distributed sensor stations all across the globe (ESA, 2024i). It employs a constellation of 30 satellites with 24 operational and 6 spares deployed in the Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) under the GSAT mission series. The mission is being carried out in two phases: In-Orbit Validation (IOV) Phase, to validate overall system performance, including satellites and ground stations; and Full Operational Capability (FOC) Phase, to deploy the complete constellation (GSC, 2024). In the first phase, four satellites, IOV-1,2,3, and 4 (GSAT0101- GSAT0104), were launched in 2011-2012, using the Russian Soyuz rockets from Kourou, French Guiana (SatNow, 2024). In the Second Phase, subsequent FOC satellites (GSAT0201- GSAT0224) were launched in pairs using Soyuz rockets, and quads using Ariane 5 rockets (GSAT0211-GSAT0218) from 2014 to 2021 (SatNow, 2024). Recently, another pair of FOC satellites have been launched in 2024. The mission objectives of Galileo focus on four major areas of operation: Open Service (freely accessible to the public), Commercial Service (enhanced accuracy for paying users), Search and Rescue Service (enabling rapid response to distress signals worldwide), and Public Regulated Service (Encrypted service for government-authorized users like security services) (ESA, 2024i). Within the operational areas, Galileo offers services and applications in precision agriculture, public safety, transport, logistics, consumer application, and environmental research (MDPI, 2023; (Mocek, et. al, 2010)). Clearly, with the contrasting mission mandate, India's NAVIC and Europe's Galileo are supplementary to each other. Also, it is interesting to note that Operating in the GEO orbit provides better accuracy and precision to NAVIC, providing high-quality services while limiting the operational area. Meanwhile, Galileo, operating in MEO, provides global coverage but with relatively lesser precision and accuracy. Thereby completing each other in terms of range, accuracy, precision, and operational areas.

Space Instrumentation

Technology cooperation has been pivotal in fostering Europe-India space engagement, typically with larger objects like rockets and satellites, and there is a long journey of mutual engagement during their development. Acknowledging this, the cooperation on the smaller Instruments, embedded and installed for the actual conduct of research work and operations while in space, has been particularly important. The individual European countries have played a vital role in terms of providing instruments for many Indian missions. At the same time, joint development, co-development, and mission objective-specific improvement, development, and modification through learning from each other have been significant for the growth of India's and Europe's space programs. Very early on, West Germany started assisting in rocket guidance by installing its interferometers on Indian-sounding rockets in 1976 (Reddy, 2019). Later, Germany provided various instruments in the initial stages of India's Remote sensing satellites program. This involves MEOSS (Modular Optoelectronic Scanner for Stereoscopic and Multispectral Observation) for IRS-1A in 1988 and IRS-1B in 1991 (EO Portal, 2024e). Further, in 1993, Germany provided the Infrared Imaging System (IRS) for the IRS-1E satellite launch on the first PSLV flight, and IRS-P2 was launched as a cooperative mission between DLR and ISRO in 1994 (Reddy, 2019). Again, in 1996, Germany provided another instrument, MOS (Modular Optoelectronic Scanner) for IRS-P3 (EO Portal, 2024f).

Along similar lines, the space agencies of individual European countries like France, the UK, Sweden, Germany, and Bulgaria partnered with ISRO to provide space observation instruments for deep space and planetary exploration missions. Chandrayaan-1 employed instruments like C1XS provided by Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in the UK, SIR-2 provided by Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Germany, and RADOM provided by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in Bulgaria (Reddy, 2019; MPS 2024; ISSDC, 2024). Another instrument, SARA (Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyzer), was jointly developed by the Swedish Institute of Space Physics in Sweden and ISRO's Space Physics Laboratory at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre in India (VSSC, 2024). These instruments facilitated many key objectives of the Chandrayaan mission. For instance, SIR-2 studied the mineral composition of the lunar surface, C1XS was used to determine elemental abundance on the lunar surface, and RADOM measured the radiation environment in near-lunar space (ISRO, 2024h). Likewise, SARA facilitated the study of the moon's surface composition and magnetic anomalies by analyzing low-energy neutral atoms (ISRO, 2024h). Instruments like SIR were also used in ESA's own Lunar mission SMART-1 previously, giving another example of mutual learning and growth (ISRO, 2024h). Similarly, various other instruments were used with modifications in multiple mission categories like Mars, Sun, and other celestial bodies, or otherwise facilitated the development of an advanced variant in other country.

Astrosat (Space Telescope) is another notable mission of ISRO employing instruments provided by the UK, Canada, and USA. The mission was launched in 2015, using a PSLV rocket from SDSC, Sriharikota, in the Near Equatorial Orbit (Lower Earth Orbit (LEO) space). The mission carried an Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) and Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) to observe the Universe in low wavelength UV and X-ray bands. The detectors for the UVIT were provided by the Canadian Space Agency and the University of Leicester in the UK, while the Mirror assembly for SXT was also developed by the University of Leicester in the UK and calibrated at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in the USA (CSA, 2024; O'Neill et al., 2011). This mission, like many other missions, offers a notable example of Multilateralism in Space collaboration, involving collaborators from three different regions. At the same time, these missions show a glimpse of a closely integrated Government-Agency-Academic complex at work, employing the whole of a government approach in the multi-agency collaboration.

In this direction, Earth Observation and Weather Monitoring missions have also benefitted from multilateral and bilateral collaborations. The Megha-Tropiques mission carried instruments provided by France and Italy, which were built and developed for ESA's Earth observation missions. Instruments like SAPHIR (Sounder for Probing Vertical Profiles of Humidity) and SCARAB (Scanner for Radiation Budget) were developed and provided by France. In contrast, Italy provided ROSA (Radio Occultation Sounder for the Atmosphere). Another instrument, MADRAS (Microwave Analysis and Detection of Rain and Atmospheric Structures), was jointly developed by France and India (EO Portal, 2024). Giving strength to the bilateral collaboration, France also provided two instruments ARGOS-3 (Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite System), for environmental monitoring, tracking, and global data collection, and ALtika Ka-band radar altimeter for Oceanography (Lele, 2024). Similarly, ROSA provided by Italy was also used in Oceansat-2, launched in 2009 (ISRO, 2024c).

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Policy Landscape, Future Endeavours, and the New Horizons in fostering cooperation

A comprehensive reading of the trajectory of the Indian Space Program suggests an application-driven and society-oriented approach, employing the strategy of backward integration. It started with the borrowed satellites, then developed indigenous satellites with procured launch services, and later developed indigenous launch capabilities. Similarly, in terms of applications, India started with small missions like remote sensing and communication satellites, developing multi-application satellites and undertaking large-scale planetary and deep space exploration missions at a later stage. It is interesting to note that while India was open to the idea of international collaboration from the very beginning, the extent and magnitude have been limited by the lack of resources, assets, and academic capacity. Even more importantly, the self-imposed restraint to develop indigenous capabilities over the long run has shaped a closed policy landscape towards the openness to the partnership intent. This restricted any partnership beyond the Agency to Agency level, completely devoided of private sector collaboration, including assets sharing, R&D, and private equity. Meanwhile, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) have remained restricted as well.

On the contrary, Europe adopted a simultaneous all-around development approach, undertaking various mission programs designated into different mission categories. At the same time, it adopted the whole of Europe approach with its Agency-Industry-Academic complex. In this, the structural development of Europe's political landscape was also a key driver, allowing for the confluence of individual space programs of the European nations. For instance, France excelled in the rocket technology pioneered by Germany with V1 and V2 rockets, as the bulk of rocket development activity was based in France (Normandy Bunkers, 2024). Likewise, Germany developed satellites and instruments along with deep space and planetary exploration, partnering early on with NASA, while Italy developed space instruments and technologies like radar and sensors. Sweden, on the other hand, developed instruments for remote sensing and natural physics experiments, while the UK excelled in the fabrication of solid space apparatuses, such as mirrors and detectors. The confluence of the space programs, supported by the European integration process, which also led to the formation of ESA, pivoted Europe towards an inclusive mandate for the all-around growth planning of the collective space programs. It provided for a larger pool of resources, including funds and academic-industrial human resources, and created a common framework for registration, transfer, and exchange of resources within Europe and foreign partners. This consolidation allowed Europe to muster capacity and capability through B2A and B2B collaborations and attract Private equity and FDI for the all-round development of the Space programs. Looking at India's approach in relation to Europe has undoubtely gained tremendously with the development of indigenous capacity building and capability development. However, the overall progress has been delayed by decades, being devoid of extra-organizational engagements with the private sector Indian and Foreign entities.

Recognizing the achievements while acknowledging the limitations, there has been a significant policy shift in recent years, with a focus on the Commercialization and Privatization of space services. In 2020, two new entities, IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Center) and NSIL (New Space India Limited), were established to facilitate the commercialization and privatization (PIB, 2022). IN-SPACe is an autonomous nodal agency acting as a medium between ISRO and the private space sector in India. In parallel, NSIL is the commercial arm of ISRO, which is responsible for enabling Indian industries to take up high-technology space-related activities. In this direction, the Government of India unveiled the plan in Indian Space Policy 2023, further clarifying the future mandate for the Indian Space Program. The policy emphasizes the diversification of space activities from a purely societal-oriented perspective to incorporating economic growth, military security, and diplomatic goals, advocating for the model of 'Leapfrogging development' (ISRO, 2023). This approach provides three dimensions for the space program to deliver on the quality of life benefits to large segments of Indian society, enabling economic expansion and the strategic front for utilizing Outer Space.

Quality of life benefits involve using space applications for enhanced communication and connectivity in suburban and rural areas and services like fintech, high-speed internet access, and telemedicine. It also involves benefits for Fisheries, Forests, and Agriculture, including services for land usage, marine biodiversity alongside cattle, and crop monitoring. Furthermore, it provides navigational services for mariners and fishermen, disaster prevention through early warning, post-disaster relief, and environmental protection with enhanced remote sensing and weather monitoring services.

Meanwhile, economic expansion encompasses macroeconomic production functions involving scientific and technological innovations while upgrading and creating a skilled workforce. These functions essentially support the commercialization and industrialization of the space program involving the private sector. The current privatization trends highlights the launch services and satellite manufacturing to be the utmost priority for large scale commercialization, since significant advancements have already been made in these domains by ISRO. The transfer and sharing of such services can thus be facilitated, either by license-based contracts for space assets or private ownership by exploiting the said assets. The policy allows for the sharing of scientific research for their commercial exploitation with the private entities mediated by NSIL. Thereby, leaving bulk of the R&D activities with ISRO while sharing the commercial expertise with the private entities or Astropreneurs. This would allow them to offer independent services, providing end to end solutions and creating the economics of scale. The economic expansion would further complement the dimension of 'Quality of life benefits' with job creation in core high-tech space services and supporting legal, consultation, and insurance services.

In conjunction, the strategic front for utilizing Outer Space extends the policy mandate, incorporating India's foreign policy and diplomacy, along with national security and defence as the new derivatives. This shift in the approach showcases the attitude shift, in general, to align with the rationales typical of the prominent space powers. Therefore, it aims to serve the objectives of developing passive and offensive capabilities, with the projection of soft power through national space efforts. At the same time, it advocates pacing up ongoing change in the institutional architecture to better address India's space-related security needs, utilizing space activities for India's foreign policy objectives. With these revolutionary policy reforms and developments, India is headed to creating its own Government-Industry-Academic complex while opening the door for International collaboration, inviting spacefaring countries with mutually shared interests, including Europe.

From the European perspective, India is considered a prominent partner with a renowned legacy of multi-agency collaboration at G2G levels with various European countries at bilateral and multilateral levels, along with ESA. Evolving space policy dynamics in India are steering the transition from the policy dialogue (G2G) to data and information exchange (B2B) and undertaking joint activities (B2C). At the G2G level, India has declared international cooperation agreements with most of the European countries, including France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Netherlands, Portugal, Luxembourg, Switzerland, UK, Bulgaria, Belgium, Denmark, and Austria (Gateway House, 2017). Each of these countries has its legacy of space programs and priority areas on which they focus.

Countries like Germany and France have extensive space programs with a multi-dimensional development mandate. Both countries have been significant international partners with India and continuously maintained comprehensive engagement with India. Germany was PSLV's first international customer, launching DLR-TUBSAT in 1999 (Franz, 2009). The same spirit is reflected in its engagement with India's space policy evolution. In 2013, ISRO and DLR organized a technical workshop to explore future areas of space cooperation, identifying component procurement, commercial launch services, and climate monitoring (Reddy, 2019). Along these priorities, both countries are working on creating the startup ecosystem in space, while PSLV rockets have delivered multiple German satellites to space, including AISat and Bird Satellites (EO Portal, 2024g; Next Spaceflight, 2024). DLR has also helped an India power distributor in setting up a research center for developing solar power plants and components in 2016, leveraging its expertise in solar technology (Reddy, 2019).

Meanwhile, France remained a steadfast partner throughout. Diplomatic relations with France have survived the grimmest periods, like nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998 (Reddy, 2019). It was the first country to recognize India's pressing security needs and initiate contacts despite the sanctions. Continuing with this policy, France remains closely involved with India in the space policy transition. In 2008, France signed three agreements on research and development, small satellites and Earth observation satellites. Regarding this, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) and Ecole Polytechnic of Paris, providing an example of the Ac2Ac collaboration (Brahmand, 2024). Thereafter, in 2015, an agreement for reinforced cooperation was signed between CNES and ISRO (VIF, 2016). An implementation agreement was signed in 2016, corresponding to an initiative led by CNES and ISRO, agreeing more than 60 countries to coordinate their satellite data for greenhouse gas monitoring (Reddy, 2019). The synergy between India and France is reflected more concretely in the India-France joint vision for Space cooperation, released in 2016 (Reddy, 2019). The vision addresses the factors of 'societal benefits' from space exploration, high-resolution observation, satellite navigation, space situational awareness, joint development of reusable vehicles, and climate change. The engagement stepped further in 2018 by releasing the Joint Strategic Vision of India-France cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region. This involved a MoU between ISRO and CNES on co-developing maritime surveillance systems and related data fusion mechanisms (MEA, 2018). Correspondingly, a landmark agreement was formalized in 2019, during French President Emanuel Macron’s visit to India for the development of a maritime surveillance center in India, aligning with India’s ambitious missions to Mars, Venus, and asteroids (Siddiqui, 2024). India and France have also maintained very strong relations in defence cooperation. Upgrading these ties to the next level, they have singed a key pact in 2022, formalizing a bilateral strategic dialogue to enhance coordination and jointness between the space and defense agencies of India and France (Siddiqui, 2024).

The two countries are also exploring technology cooperation in aero-breaking and navigation in planetary missions, and hosting French instruments on Indian mission. Setting an example for international collaboration at the A2B level, CNES signed an agreement to fly two of its high-tech cameras on board Team Indus Moon Rover (Deccan Herald, 2024). However, the mission could not be realized due to a funding crunch. ISRO and CNES have set up a joint working group on reusable launch vehicles involving Arianespace, which has also signed a MoU with NSIL in 2024 for commercial launch services (The Hindu, 2024). Meanwhile, the development and testing of small satellite vehicles are being carried out. A French company Promethee is exploring the possibility of placing its nanosatellites in orbit using the Vikram-series of launch vehicles being developed by Indian start-up Skyroot Aerospace (Economic Times, 2024). Another MoU is signed, involving Skyroot, Expleo, and ConnectSAT, aimed at establishing the OSIRIS satellite constellation, showcasing the depth and diversity of collaborative projects (Siddiqui, 2024). Other French companies are also involved in different profiles like Thales Alenia Space in providing satellite components and systems and Airbus Defence and Space is using launch services in SPOT missions for earth observation and involved in improvement of DTH services (Thales Group, 2024; Airbus, 2016). Likewise, and Safran, working on propulsion systems and cryogenic engines, while Eutelsat is leasing transponders for satellites, (Safran Group, 2024; OneWeb, 2023). From the Indian side, companies like Godrej Aerospace are collaborating with Safran and Thales Alenia Space, while Alpha Design Technologies is collaborating with Airbus on ISRO missions and government contracts (MM India, 2024; IPF Online, 2024 Chandrakanth, 2014). These engagements are display G2B, B2B, A2B, and B2C level engagement at International level in line with the commercialization ambition of the space policy.

Focusing back on priorities, Italy and Sweden are two other prominent countries working in close association with India. Italy has maintained its priorities on application-driven development of space programs for social benefits, similar to India. ISRO and ASI signed a framework agreement for cooperation in the exploration and peaceful use of outer space in 1998 (MEA, 2000). Another agreement was signed in 2005 for conducting joint programs in earth observation, space sciences, and aeronautics (Reddy, 2019). Thereon, both countries are partnering in multiple commercial contracts involving satellite launches (AGILE) and instruments (ROSA). Exploring further the future possibilities, Italy identifies earth observation, space exploration, and small satellite launches as priority areas, having excelled in launch vehicles (VEGA rocket) and space instruments (ArianeSpace, 2024). Working on some of these areas, ISRO and ASI signed a joint statement in 2017 on cooperation in earth observation and space exploration (Reddy, 2019). The potential for cooperation on the launch vehicles is still being explored, restrained by European protectionism against non-European solutions. In 2020, India and Italy released a Joint Statement and Plan of Action 2020-2024, acknowledging the importance of space cooperation for peaceful purposes and exploring cooperation in earth observation, disaster management and space science. They also welcomed the creation of the first joint ASI-ISRO working group in heliophysics field involving experts and scientists from both countries as well as the establishment of Thematic Working Groups between the two agencies (MEA, 2020)

Likewise, India and Sweden are legacy partners, signing a MoU in 1986 for cooperation in space exploration, including the exchange of technology and personnel, under which it provided instruments for Chandrayaan-1 (Embassy of India, 2021). Sweden is the innovation and testing hotspot for space technology in Europe. Estrange Space Center in North Sweden hosts a rocket range and scientific center experimenting on sounding rockets, high drop tests of space, high altitude balloons (into Near Earth Orbit), and aerial vehicles (Reddy, 2019). At the same time, it also accommodates one of the largest civilian satellite ground stations, which acts as a hub in India's satellite station network as well (Reddy, 2019). Its future vision for the space program clearly aims to establish itself as a space startup hub with the opening of an ESA business incubation center (Reddy, 2019). It supports more than 300 projects involving local universities and industries, including more than 40 startups, and as a result, it attracts roughly 15% of total FDI in the European technology sector (Reddy, 2019). Aligning with the same vision held by India, Sweden has signed MoU to promote cooperation amongst startups in 2017 (Startup India, 2023). Further in this direction, an initiative called 'Startup Sambandh' to facilitate Swedish investments in India (Startup India, 2023). Both countries have a signed a MoU in 2023, during India-Sweden Space and Geospatial Business Summit, coordinated by the Geospatial World Chamber of Commerce (GWCC) and the Sweden-India Business Council (SIBC) took place in Stockholm focusing on earth observation, planetary exploration, and ground station activities (Embassy of India, 2023). Along these lines, in 2024, Swedish Space Corporation and the Indian Space startup Dhruva Space announced their cooperation in Satellite Ground Station Network domain (Financial Express, 2024).

Apart from the above-mentioned countries, other European countries are also pivoting their space programs towards specific priority areas in different dimensions. For instance, Norway's interests are primarily concerned with telecommunication, while it also joined Galileo and Copernicus programs for navigation and Earth observation (Reddy, 2019). Spain hosts the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) - the scientific operations center for ESA's astronomy and planetary missions. It is looking to establish a spaceport for the space transportation business while targeting a small satellite launch market for the NEO and LEO orbits (Reddy, 2019). The Netherlands is focusing on the next-generation laser satellite communication (Parsonson, 2024). It is also collaborating with an Indian company to develop a global search engine for the aerospace industry (Reddy, 2019). Being a fresh entrant, Switzerland is also focusing on the Small Satellite launch alongside emerging space debris removal (Swiss Tech, 2024). Its first satellite, 'Swiss-Cube,' launched in 2009 using PSLV rockets, was designed by Indian Universities (Swissinfo, 2024). At present, the engagement of these countries with India is rather limited concerning their priority areas in space, and the relationship is widely limited to the customer level. However, there is ample potential that needs to be leveraged as they move forward, especially in the emerging domains, in terms of joint development, knowledge sharing, and technology transfer.

Among the fresh entrants, Portugal, the UK, and Luxembourg are three key countries worth mentioning, working extensively on their specific priority areas. Portugal is working on multi-spectral development of the Space Program, focusing on small satellite launch services and earth observation constellations.  At the same time, it is also looking to become a technology hub in Europe, competing with other countries. It created a national network of startups and a technology hub in 2016 and gave a year of fellowship to 400 entrepreneurs working on their ventures (Reddy, 2019). It has also adopted the methods of hosting web summits on moving to Portugal and converting the former food factory into the largest campus for startups (Reddy, 2019). Portugal is looking to foster close cooperation with India, signing a MoU in 2017 to advance research on space, marine sciences, and weather, creating a knowledge hub for North-South cooperation, and adopting an integrated approach (ANI News, 2017). This involves establishing a research center on the Azores archipelago, which also hosts an Estrack station tracking Ariane 5 rockets from French Guiana, and now integrating X-band radar to track LEO satellites (ANI News, 2017). A project to build a spaceport for cost-effective launches is also underway. Similar to the Indian space policy 2023, 'Pourtgal Space 2030' highlights promoting economic growth and supporting new space by leveraging international scientific and technical cooperation, with a special emphasis on Lusospheric countries (Reddy, 2019). On these lines, Pourtgal has decided to expedite visas to Indian Startups and Businesses interested in setting up operations in Pourtgal. For further facilitation, an India-Pourtgal International startup hub has been established (Reddy, 2019).

United Kingdom is looking forward to become a space conglomerate, concentrating on all-around expansion in the global satellite market by manufacturing telecommunication and small satellites. It further includes building spaceports and intends to become a global hub for small satellite launches, competing with Italy, Portugal, France, and Switzerland. The UK is also working to develop advanced rocket engines and propulsion technology by partnering with private sector enterprises. Companies like Reaction Engine Limited are working on a part-jet and part-rocket engine, receiving investments from Boeing and Rolls Royce (BBC News, 2024). Another company ‘Effective space’ is working on satellite servicing drones (Space News, 2024). It also hosts at least 15 startup clusters, with the largest one hosting about 80 companies (Reddy, 2019). However, it is also important to highlight that it faces a huge crisis post-Brexit, losing EU member status and getting excluded from ESA’s contract bidding. This also includes the Galileo program, and therefore, UK is looking for an alternative such as the British Global Navigation System (Reddy, 2019). Losing on its long-standing European partners creates a vast vacuum and relative isolation in the region. This situation is likely to create difficulties for UK conglomerate ambitions. On the bright side, there stands a massive opportunity for the UK to partner with India, which can provide assistance at a level similar to Europe. Currently, UK is a customer of PSLV rockets and partnered with India's Chandrayaan-1 mission. Beyond this, the engagement with India has remained limited. Exploring the engagement possibilities further in this area, there are comprehensive gains to be made by both the countries. Working in this direction, UK has signed an agreement with the ISRO in 2021 to conduct a feasibility study for collaboration on future space-science missions (IISS, 2024). UK Space Agency is presently involved in Indian–British projects through its Space Science and Exploration Bilateral Programme and International Bilateral Fund, launched in 2022 and 2023, respectively (IISS, 2024). Projects receiving funding include orbiter software development for India's Chandrayaan mission and the upcoming Shukrayaan (Venus) missions and X-ray-instrument development for India's DISHA space-weather mission.

Luxembourg is an outlier, looking to become a global hub for space resources instead of competing in popular avenues in satellite launch and data collection from Earth orbit. Luxembourg Government's Space Resource Initiative has created a legal framework granting protection to the rights of commercial entities to own, transport, use, and sell mine resources (Reddy, 2019). The initiative has also set up funds for research and development promotion in space mining. United States has also passes domestic laws on space mining, igniting debate on the legal status of Outer space bodies (Reddy, 2019). American companies Deep Space Industries and Planetary Resources have set up offices in Luxembourg, creating a synergy between the legal frameworks of the two countries. The Ministry of Economy in Luxembourg is in charge of space policy and initiatives, making space innovation a significant government objective in its economic outlook (Reddy, 2019). The Ministry has been funding NewSpace Europe since 2017, providing $70 million to companies in return for setting up their European headquarters in Luxembourg (Reddy, 2019). This initiative to enhance the global profile of Luxembourg reflects the 'Whole of Government' approach. Big companies all across the globe, like AOL, Amazon, and TATA, have established their European headquarters in Luxembourg. Also, the chamber of commerce has opened a 'House of Startups,' encouraging a startup ecosystem. The push for application-based space industries has allowed the establishment of a space cluster comprising 30 companies to research space technology and services (Reddy, 2019). Responding to these developments, India took the initiative in 2018, becoming the first to discuss Outer Space as one of the key priority areas of cooperation. It has established a trade and investment office in Delhi (Reddy, 2019). In 2022, Luxembourg signed MoU with India, which gives a framework for agency-to-agency level space cooperation while intending to foster collaboration between private companies in both countries (LSA, 2022). It also aims to strengthen relationships between the two countries, facilitating research, academic exchange, exploration, development, and the use of outer space for peaceful purposes.

The way forward for space cooperation

Europe and India have had a rich legacy in space engagement, which involves direct cooperation in their mission programs through technology and services exchange while complementing and supplementing each other through information and knowledge sharing. The engagement is poised to increase tremendously, provided open arms are extended to each other for a shared growth destiny. In this regard, the future prospects of space engagement may be looked into in three dimensions: agency-specific programs, commercialization aspects, and space security aspects. More importantly, their scope must be weighed in the context of the geostrategic imperatives and long-term geopolitical transitions.

Agency-specific program engagement incorporates program aspects of the future space mission of ISRO and ESA, where both can support each other by involving and sharing expertise in joint venture partnerships in technology, policy, and financial derivatives. The planned future missions of ISRO in the next decade involve the Gaganyaan Series (Human Space Flight), Shukrayaan-1 (Venus Orbiter), Mangalyaan-2, Lunar Polar exploration (in collaboration with JAXA), Chandrayaan-4, Bhartiya Antariksha Station (Space Station), and Astrosat-2 (Space Telescope) (Indian Express, 2023). ESA and National Space Agencies of European nations may partner with ISRO in these programs at various levels. For instance, France is training Indian' Vyomnauts' (Space crew) for the Gaganyaan mission series and is involved in the software development for the Moon and Venus missions (India Today, 2021; Economic Times, 2020). ESA may also provide crucial support to India, given its own experiences and achievements with the Venus Express mission in 2006.

Similarly, ESA also has a bunch of missions planned for the future in different mission categories. It includes SMILE (studying Earth's magnetosphere and Solar Winds interactions) in the S-class category, Comet Interceptor (comet flyby mission in Sun-Earth L2 point orbit), and ARRAKHIS (Surveying around a hundred galaxies and their surroundings to investigate Dwarf galaxies and Stellar streams) in F-class category (ESA, 2024k). Likewise, M- category missions include Elucid (Space Telescope for visible and infrared study of space, focusing on dark matter and dark energy), PLATO ( Kepler-like Space Observatory for discovering Exoplanets), ARIEL ( Plank-based space observatory for studying the atmosphere of known planets) and EnVision (Venus mapping orbiter mission), (ESA, 2024k). ESA can certainly involve ISRO to partner in this program, especially since these missions coincide with ISRO deep space and planetary exploration missions, employing orbiters and telescopes. ESA and ISRO collaboration S-class, F-class, and M-class missions would also ensure steadfast commitment in the medium term, building trust and confidence. Meanwhile, collaboration in L-class missions may also be explored over the long term, which currently involves three missions. The first mission, JUICE (Explorer mission to Jupiter's Icy moons), will study three moons of Jupiter, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, to find traces of water. The next mission, LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antena), will study gravitational waves in space. The final mission, ATHENA (Advanced X-ray Telescope for High-Energy Astrophysics), is the successor to the Cornerstone XMM-Newton mission in 1999 (ESA, 2024k). Besides, Multi-agency collaboration can also be explored involving ESA, ISRO, and a third country on the lines of the Aditya L-1 mission involving ISRO, ESA, and NASA and Cassini (Saturn mission) involving NASA, ESA, and ASI (NASA, 2024).

Engagement in Commercialization aspects may look at the large-scale utility aspects of the space program, which involve governments, businesses, industries, and academics. The scope of mutual engagement between India and Europe can be further subcategories into existing and new ventures. Existing ventures may involve advancements in launch vehicles, ground station networks, and satellite services while utilizing their applications to cater to socio-economic and environmental imperatives. It incorporates Earth observation, remote sensing, communication, and meteorology satellite programs. For instance, India may utilize Galelio's services for global navigation applications. India may be involved in the replacement servicing-related aspects by ESA leveraging its cost-effective solution approach and MRO (Maintenance, Repairs, and Operation) capabilities. Likewise, Europe may utilize the services of NAVIC for regional navigational applications in the Indian Ocean and surrounding areas and may be involved by India for the global extension of the NAVIC's satellite network or deploying similar clusters for Europe, the Atlantic, and the Polar region. The same reasoning can be applied to communication satellites focusing on next-generation 5G and 6G technologies and exploring LEO and NEO domains.

Similarly with Earth observation and remote sensing, each other's services may be utilized for applications in land monitoring, including forestry, agriculture, urban deformation, maritime monitoring, including coastguards, ships, oil spillage detection, and coastline erosion, as well as ice sheet melting, volcano eruption, and studying marine waves and wind patterns. In this context, India may be called to join ESA's programs like Sentinel, Envisat, and Living Planet and their successor missions. Likewise, Europe may be involved in the Oceansat, Resourcesat, Cartosat, and RISAT program series. Further, this cooperation would benefit the space startup ecosystem with the involvement of the private sector. With such kind of engagement, companies venturing into launch services, satellite manufacturing, space components, appliances, instruments, software services, and radars could take contracts while collaborating at A2B, B2B levels, and B2C. India's move to allow 100 percent FDI in the space sector is already a stepping stone in this direction (PIB, 2024).

Likewise, the 'new ventures' may be another focal aspect of commercialization. It involves exploring emerging domains such as space debris, space mining, space tourism, space agriculture, space manufacturing, space construction, space inhabitation, and colonization. Meanwhile, it also encompasses advanced technology cooperation on advanced technologies in launch services, rocket engines, and propulsion like re-entry launch vehicles, remote launch facilities, and nuclear propulsion engines, along with space balloons and Space stations. India and Europe are actively exploring the possibility of obtaining, developing, and excelling at these technologies. They are working rigorously with the respective agencies and private enterprises, trying to attract expertise across the globe. Examples of this can be seen in the cases of Luxembourg, Switzerland, Sweden, Portugal, Italy, Spain, and India. A more comprehensive engagement may be explored in this regard at the EU level, exploring avenues of deeper integration through working on the policy framework for New-space engagement.       

Engagement in Space Security aspects is centered on the extra-civilian use of space-based assets for civil security. It incorporates military and defence-related aspects. However, this may still adhere to the framework of the peaceful use of outer space. This involves projectile and non-projectile anti-satellite weapons for defunct satellites and planetary defense systems like the DART experiment for de-orbiting cosmic objects like comets and satellites. At the same time, it employs other space-based assets for security needs like surveillance and monitoring on Earth, and military satellites, alongside snooping on foreign satellites in space. This is a fresh avenue for Europe and India to explore, provided the security interests between the two are shared. In this direction, India is reviewing its security policies and re-priorities its considerations for the protection against space-based security threats, emphasizing dual-purpose assets and potential mass disruption technologies like space-based satellite interceptors, and space objects with gravitational force endurance. 

In line with the new space policy 2023, which highlights National Security, alongside International collaboration; India is inviting like-minded countries and partners with shared interests and mutually common concerns to discuss cooperation possibilities. India is hosting summits, workshops, and conferences which are joined by government and security officials, academics, foreign diplomats, and business leaders from India and Europe, employing a ‘Whole of National approach’. Some prominent ones involve the DefSpace symposium in 2023 and 2024, hosted by the Indian Space Association, which was joined by many European countries like France and Italy (ISpA, 2023; ISpA, 2024). Discussion on bringing Space Security Policy for India is underway. At the same time, Europe is also thinking ahead in this direction, understanding the military significance of space. EU launched its first-ever Space Strategy for Security and Defence in 2022, outlining the counter space capabilities and main threats in space that put space systems and their ground infrastructure at risk (EEA, 2024). The policy highlights strengthening engagement in multilateral fora and promoting norms, rules, and principles of responsible behaviours in outer space. The Strategy also emphasizes deepening existing space security cooperation and expanding exchanges with like-minded countries. With the aligning interests reflected in each other's attitudes and policy frameworks, India and Europe are well positioned to strengthen strong ties, employing a pragmatic approach.  

Finally, the whole engagement in Space, ranging from Space agencies, Commercialization, and Security, incorporating all stakeholders from governments, businesses, scientists, academics, and civilians who are essentially the end users; must be gauged in the geopolitical context. Certainly, multilateralism substantiated by mutually shared interests delivers the best outcomes in the long term. However, it is moderated by the aspects of autonomy, polarity, and national spirit. The trajectory of the evolution of space programs with these geopolitical aspects, over the past 85 years suggests that India and Europe have transitioned through the a phase of national spirited isolationism, to limited bilateralism during the post-world war bipolar- nonaligned order, and restrained multilateralism during the ensuing Unipolar moment 1990 onwards. At the present time, provided the explosive changes that are happening across the globe, a new world order is setting in, and the unipolar moment is fading with the ensuing multipolar moment. Transitioning through this new phase, multilateralism is characterized by multi-alignment and strategic autonomy. Therefore, this is the ideal time for realizing long-term commitments where mutually shared interests converge, and sealing solid partnerships that will sustain even during extreme odds. In this direction, seeking new strategic partnerships at the bilateral level while upgrading the existing ones into multilateral partnerships, is the most feasible way forward for space cooperation. As the security and commercial aspects converge with the public welfare-spirited core of the Space Program, this sort of cooperation will sustain longer since it is based on shared legacy and long-term trust, cumulatively built over decades, rather than short-sighted transactional interests. Following this approach, India's bilateral ties with long-standing European partners should be extended laterally to facilitate greater multilateral engagement with the other European partners. Meanwhile, the European partners should deliver steadfast support to strengthen ESA and ISRO ties. At the same time, Multi-Agency cooperation may be ensured at the multilateral level by adopting ESA-India and other approaches with like-minded countries. 

Conclusion

The Space programs of Europe and India are progressing with an evolutionary synergy. This synergy is characterized by multifaceted engagement in space ventures involving satellite programs, launch services, space instruments, as well as deep space exploration and planetary expeditions. The key features of this mutually assuring relationship, in terms of capacity building, technology transfer, joint development, and knowledge sharing, testify to the potential of international cooperation in achieving shared objectives. Bringing this relationship forward, India and Europe are now looking at writing a new chapter as their respective space mandates converge, incorporating commercial and security imperatives besides socio-economic development. There is a fertile ground for furthering these engagements with advancements in space technology and the emergence of new space domains. Leveraging their respective strengths in technology, aligning policy directives, and contemplating mission objectives, India and Europe can unlock new opportunities in space-based applications and mutually benefit from them. Building robust partnerships with the government, businesses, and academics and creating an integrated complex with them will be crucial in realizing the full potential of this collaboration. Most importantly, this partnership between India and Europe must navigate the complexities of a multipolar world, strengthening multilateralism while respecting strategic autonomy. In this respect, a prudent and far-sighted approach that balances national interests with shared goals is essential. For that, fostering trust built upon the existing foundations and long-term commitment is required. Both regions should prioritize the development of a comprehensive framework that fuses India's incremental growth approach with Europe's round-excellence approach, turning the 'whole of a nation' idea into a 'both regions together' outlook. With these considerations, the India-Europe partnership is well-positioned to play a pivotal role in shaping the future of space exploration and its utilization, which is intertwined with the destiny of planet Earth.

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This Article is is written by Anurag Sharma who is a fellow with EICBI